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older run · latest of 12

New gas proposal

Worst-case-across-clients gas costs derived from the runtime fits, compared against the current Osaka cost table. Rendered from the generated proposal report; see the runtime and glue pages for the underlying per-fit detail.

Generated 2026-07-31 15:51:06Z · fork osaka · anchor_rate 75 Mgas/s

Summary: 12 parameters proposed — 9 increased, 3 decreased, 0 new, 0 unresolved · 4 warnings · 1 poor-fit selection

Proposed gas parameters

Gas param	Current gas	Proposed gas	Δ%
COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS	2100	1634	-22%
COLD_STORAGE_WRITE	5000	17102	+242%
WARM_ACCESS	100	36	-64%
COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS	2600	7920	+205%
COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE	9300	20422	+120%
COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS	2600	11034	+324%
COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE	9300	20637	+122%
STORAGE_WRITE	2800	15468	+452%
ACCOUNT_WRITE	6700	12502	+87%
REFUND_STORAGE_CLEAR	4800	16418	+242%
TX_ACCESS_LIST_STORAGE_KEY	1900	1634	-14%
TX_ACCESS_LIST_ADDRESS	2400	11034	+360%

Client comparison

Worst client vs. second-worst client per gas parameter. The Ratio column is worst gas / second-worst gas — values close to 1× mean the worst case sits next to the rest of the field, while large ratios flag the worst client as an outlier.

Gas param	Worst client	Worst gas	Second-worst client	Second-worst gas	Ratio
COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS	geth	1634	besu	1331	1.23×
COLD_STORAGE_WRITE	erigon	17102	geth	10355	1.65×
WARM_ACCESS	nethermind	36	besu	34	1.06×
COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS	erigon	7920	besu	2526	3.14×
COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE	erigon	20422	besu	13187	1.55×
COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS	erigon	11034	ethrex	7606	1.45×
COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE	erigon	20637	besu	13187	1.56×

Per-client proposed gas for each parameter. Cells are colored by log2(proposed / current) — red means the proposal is more expensive than the current gas cost, green means cheaper, and white sits at unchanged. Annotations show the absolute proposed gas value; blank rows are parameters with no prior baseline (see warnings below).

	besu	erigon	ethrex	geth	nethermind	reth
COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS	1,331	494	990	1,634	673	311
COLD_STORAGE_WRITE	10,234	17,102	686	10,355	5,601	3,090
WARM_ACCESS	34	8	8	14	36	5
COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS	2,526	7,920	1,386	1,605	830	363
COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE	13,187	20,422	3,897	11,791	7,509	4,015
COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS	3,509	11,034	7,606	3,155	2,837	1,803
COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE	13,187	20,637	10,062	11,791	7,509	4,305

Worst-case provenance per gas param

One collapsible block per gas parameter showing every per-client candidate that the worst-case selector saw. Rows are model combos (the source regression's test_name, target_opcode, model_coef_name, and any model_by factors — components constant within a parameter are dropped from the label). Cells carry each candidate's proposed gas; the cell the per-client selector picked is outlined in black. Colors are log2(proposed / current) against that parameter's baseline on a per-parameter symmetric scale.

COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS — 4 combos × 6 clients

	besu	erigon	ethrex	geth	nethermind	reth
test_sload_bloated · SLOAD · slots=False	1,217	483	640	1,630	646	306
test_sload_bloated · SLOAD · slots=True	1,207	472	990	1,553	660	304
test_sstore_bloated · SSTORE · slots=False	1,238	494	631	1,634	656	310
test_sstore_bloated · SSTORE · slots=True	1,331	479	980	1,557	673	311

COLD_STORAGE_WRITE — 2 combos × 6 clients

	besu	erigon	ethrex	geth	nethermind	reth
slots=False	10,234	17,102	0	10,355	5,601	3,090
slots=True	6,991	10,504	686	6,904	4,449	2,063

WARM_ACCESS — 8 combos × 6 clients

Label	Combo
`M1`	test_name=test_ext_account_query_warm / target_opcode=BALANCE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_opcode=BALANCE
`M2`	test_name=test_ext_account_query_warm / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_opcode=CALL
`M3`	test_name=test_ext_account_query_warm / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_opcode=CALLCODE
`M4`	test_name=test_ext_account_query_warm / target_opcode=DELEGATECALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_opcode=DELEGATECALL
`M5`	test_name=test_ext_account_query_warm / target_opcode=EXTCODEHASH / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_opcode=EXTCODEHASH
`M6`	test_name=test_ext_account_query_warm / target_opcode=EXTCODESIZE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_opcode=EXTCODESIZE
`M7`	test_name=test_ext_account_query_warm / target_opcode=STATICCALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_opcode=STATICCALL
`M8`	test_name=test_sload_same_key_benchmark / target_opcode=SLOAD / model_coef_name=target_coef

	besu	erigon	ethrex	geth	nethermind	reth
M1	7	4	2	2	12	1
M2	31	24	8	11	27	5
M3	34	8	8	14	15	5
M4	31	8	8	12	36	4
M5	6	22	2	3	18	2
M6	8	4	2	1	19	1
M7	30	23	8	14	28	4
M8	5	4	2	4	10	1

COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS — 16 combos × 6 clients

Label	Combo
`M1`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=BALANCE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_EOA / param_opcode=BALANCE
`M2`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=BALANCE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=BALANCE
`M3`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_EOA / param_opcode=CALL
`M4`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=CALL
`M5`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_EOA / param_opcode=CALLCODE
`M6`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=CALLCODE
`M7`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=DELEGATECALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_EOA / param_opcode=DELEGATECALL
`M8`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=DELEGATECALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=DELEGATECALL
`M9`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODECOPY / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_EOA / param_opcode=EXTCODECOPY
`M10`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODECOPY / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=EXTCODECOPY
`M11`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODEHASH / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_EOA / param_opcode=EXTCODEHASH
`M12`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODEHASH / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=EXTCODEHASH
`M13`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODESIZE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_EOA / param_opcode=EXTCODESIZE
`M14`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODESIZE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=EXTCODESIZE
`M15`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=STATICCALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_EOA / param_opcode=STATICCALL
`M16`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=STATICCALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=STATICCALL

	besu	erigon	ethrex	geth	nethermind	reth
M1	2,374	705	1,373	1,561	779	342
M2	2,327	623	181	1,508	755	336
M3	2,464	778	1,383	1,577	799	363
M4	2,471	687	190	1,570	807	347
M5	2,460	712	1,375	1,579	800	350
M6	2,418	632	192	1,595	790	321
M7	2,483	715	1,377	1,584	783	352
M8	2,424	633	190	1,598	792	344
M9	2,357	695	1,372	1,605	789	351
M10	2,365	614	185	1,541	769	344
M11	2,348	679	1,366	1,547	768	344
M12	2,328	604	182	1,504	782	335
M13	2,378	692	1,370	1,562	773	348
M14	2,320	612	180	1,512	777	329
M15	2,463	729	1,386	1,573	830	357
M16	2,526	7,920	192	1,600	823	346

COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE — 4 combos × 6 clients

Label	Combo
`M1`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_EOA / param_opcode=CALL
`M2`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=CALL
`M3`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_EOA / param_opcode=CALLCODE
`M4`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=CALLCODE

	besu	erigon	ethrex	geth	nethermind	reth
M1	8,636	10,983	2,720	7,714	5,017	2,681
M2	13,187	20,422	3,897	11,791	7,509	4,015
M3	2,808	653	1,403	2,362	1,068	489
M4	2,783	588	200	2,363	1,007	487

COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS — 32 combos × 6 clients

Label	Combo
`M1`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=BALANCE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_DIFF_MAX / param_opcode=BALANCE
`M2`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=BALANCE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_MINIMAL / param_opcode=BALANCE
`M3`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=BALANCE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_SAME_MAX / param_opcode=BALANCE
`M4`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=BALANCE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=BALANCE
`M5`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_DIFF_MAX / param_opcode=CALL
`M6`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_MINIMAL / param_opcode=CALL
`M7`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_SAME_MAX / param_opcode=CALL
`M8`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=CALL
`M9`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_DIFF_MAX / param_opcode=CALLCODE
`M10`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_MINIMAL / param_opcode=CALLCODE
`M11`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_SAME_MAX / param_opcode=CALLCODE
`M12`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=CALLCODE
`M13`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=DELEGATECALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_DIFF_MAX / param_opcode=DELEGATECALL
`M14`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=DELEGATECALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_MINIMAL / param_opcode=DELEGATECALL
`M15`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=DELEGATECALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_SAME_MAX / param_opcode=DELEGATECALL
`M16`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=DELEGATECALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=DELEGATECALL
`M17`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODECOPY / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_DIFF_MAX / param_opcode=EXTCODECOPY
`M18`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODECOPY / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_MINIMAL / param_opcode=EXTCODECOPY
`M19`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODECOPY / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_SAME_MAX / param_opcode=EXTCODECOPY
`M20`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODECOPY / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=EXTCODECOPY
`M21`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODEHASH / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_DIFF_MAX / param_opcode=EXTCODEHASH
`M22`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODEHASH / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_MINIMAL / param_opcode=EXTCODEHASH
`M23`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODEHASH / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_SAME_MAX / param_opcode=EXTCODEHASH
`M24`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODEHASH / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=EXTCODEHASH
`M25`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODESIZE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_DIFF_MAX / param_opcode=EXTCODESIZE
`M26`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODESIZE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_MINIMAL / param_opcode=EXTCODESIZE
`M27`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODESIZE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_SAME_MAX / param_opcode=EXTCODESIZE
`M28`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=EXTCODESIZE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=EXTCODESIZE
`M29`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=STATICCALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_DIFF_MAX / param_opcode=STATICCALL
`M30`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=STATICCALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_MINIMAL / param_opcode=STATICCALL
`M31`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=STATICCALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_SAME_MAX / param_opcode=STATICCALL
`M32`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=STATICCALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=STATICCALL

	besu	erigon	ethrex	geth	nethermind	reth
M1	3,308	1,862	1,391	1,580	857	1,565
M2	1,965	1,790	1,396	1,483	882	371
M3	1,960	1,802	1,398	1,492	834	375
M4	2,327	623	181	1,508	755	336
M5	3,509	11,034	7,550	3,126	2,837	1,800
M6	2,039	1,872	1,416	1,529	914	410
M7	2,042	2,031	1,406	1,526	931	401
M8	2,471	687	190	1,570	807	347
M9	3,461	10,991	7,560	3,113	2,836	1,732
M10	2,062	1,835	1,414	1,525	940	360
M11	2,070	1,979	1,411	1,501	930	382
M12	2,418	632	192	1,595	790	321
M13	3,440	11,014	7,577	3,099	2,798	1,713
M14	2,070	1,824	1,407	1,519	943	373
M15	2,075	1,990	1,413	1,500	920	379
M16	2,424	633	190	1,598	792	344
M17	3,403	10,803	7,579	3,155	2,781	1,730
M18	1,970	1,815	1,405	1,526	873	375
M19	1,997	1,813	1,397	1,505	856	376
M20	2,365	614	185	1,541	769	344
M21	3,304	1,829	1,391	1,473	874	1,524
M22	1,960	1,785	1,399	1,483	883	368
M23	1,919	1,773	1,397	1,475	894	365
M24	2,328	604	182	1,504	782	335
M25	3,316	10,767	7,598	3,119	2,789	1,736
M26	1,946	1,816	1,405	1,491	836	367
M27	1,957	1,807	1,398	1,486	867	372
M28	2,320	612	180	1,512	777	329
M29	3,490	11,000	7,606	3,108	2,783	1,803
M30	1,985	1,841	1,414	1,500	924	401
M31	2,032	1,991	1,409	1,532	924	405
M32	2,526	7,920	192	1,600	823	346

COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE — 8 combos × 6 clients

Label	Combo
`M1`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_DIFF_MAX / param_opcode=CALL
`M2`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_MINIMAL / param_opcode=CALL
`M3`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_SAME_MAX / param_opcode=CALL
`M4`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALL / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=CALL
`M5`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_DIFF_MAX / param_opcode=CALLCODE
`M6`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_MINIMAL / param_opcode=CALLCODE
`M7`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.EXISTING_CONTRACT_SAME_MAX / param_opcode=CALLCODE
`M8`	test_name=test_account_access / target_opcode=CALLCODE / model_coef_name=target_coef / param_account_mode=AccountMode.NON_EXISTING_ACCOUNT / param_opcode=CALLCODE

	besu	erigon	ethrex	geth	nethermind	reth
M1	10,815	20,637	10,062	9,773	6,838	4,305
M2	8,485	12,113	2,706	7,722	5,407	2,647
M3	8,495	12,197	2,704	7,706	5,298	2,785
M4	13,187	20,422	3,897	11,791	7,509	4,015
M5	4,243	10,924	8,351	4,594	3,327	1,857
M6	2,619	1,835	1,406	2,273	1,173	504
M7	2,678	1,985	1,431	2,312	1,142	496
M8	2,783	588	200	2,363	1,007	487

Warnings

Missing parameters

None.

Incomplete client coverage

None.

Missing glue adjustments

Non-priced opcodes correlated with the target opcount — 1 test affected

The target coefficient was left unadjusted for these. Consider adding them to the glue model or re-designing the test to isolate the target opcode.

Test name	Non-priced opcodes
`test_account_access`	`SHA3`

Priced glue opcodes with a poor fit — 149 (glue_opcode, client) fits skipped

p_value >= glue_contribution_p_value_threshold (0.05) or rsquared < glue_contribution_rsquared_threshold (0.5) — the contribution of these (glue_opcode, client) fits was skipped when computing the glue adjustment, so the listed gas params carry a target coefficient that is not net of this glue opcode's runtime on the affected clients. See glue_opcodes_autogenerated_report.md for per-fit metrics.

Glue opcode	Affected clients	Affected gas params
`ADD`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE`, `COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS`, `COLD_STORAGE_WRITE`
`AND`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	—
`CALLDATACOPY`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	—
`CALLDATALOAD`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (R²), `ethrex` (R²), `geth` (R²), `nethermind` (R²), `reth` (R²)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE`, `COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS`, `COLD_STORAGE_WRITE`
`CALLDATASIZE`	`erigon` (both), `geth` (R²), `nethermind` (R²), `reth` (R²)	—
`DIV`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	—
`DUP`	`besu` (p-value), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (p-value), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE`, `COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS`, `COLD_STORAGE_WRITE`
`EXP`	`geth` (R²), `nethermind` (both)	—
`GAS`	`erigon` (both), `geth` (R²), `nethermind` (R²), `reth` (R²)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE`, `COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS`, `WARM_ACCESS`
`GT`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE`, `COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS`
`ISZERO`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	—
`JUMP`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	—
`JUMPDEST`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE`, `COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS`, `COLD_STORAGE_WRITE`
`JUMPI`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE`, `COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS`, `COLD_STORAGE_WRITE`
`LT`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	`COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS`, `COLD_STORAGE_WRITE`
`MLOAD`	`erigon` (both), `geth` (R²), `nethermind` (R²), `reth` (R²)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE`, `WARM_ACCESS`
`MSTORE`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE`
`MSTORE8`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`
`MUL`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	—
`PC`	`besu` (R²), `erigon` (R²), `ethrex` (R²), `geth` (R²), `nethermind` (R²), `reth` (R²)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE`, `COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS`
`PUSH`	`besu` (p-value), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (p-value), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE`, `COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS`, `COLD_STORAGE_WRITE`, `WARM_ACCESS`
`PUSH0`	`besu` (p-value), `erigon` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (R²), `reth` (R²)	—
`RETURNDATASIZE`	`besu` (R²), `erigon` (R²), `ethrex` (R²), `geth` (R²), `nethermind` (R²), `reth` (R²)	—
`SELFBALANCE`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	—
`STATICCALL`	`erigon` (R²), `geth` (R²), `nethermind` (R²), `reth` (R²)	—
`SUB`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	`COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_CODE_WRITE`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_ACCESS`, `COLD_ACCOUNT_NOCODE_WRITE`, `COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS`
`SWAP`	`besu` (both), `erigon` (both), `ethrex` (both), `geth` (both), `nethermind` (both), `reth` (both)	`COLD_STORAGE_ACCESS`, `COLD_STORAGE_WRITE`

Other

derived: 'REFUND_STORAGE_CLEAR' shadows a raw fork field on 'osaka'
derived: 'TX_ACCESS_LIST_STORAGE_KEY' shadows a raw fork field on 'osaka'
derived: 'TX_ACCESS_LIST_ADDRESS' shadows a raw fork field on 'osaka'

Poor-fit selections

Rows where the winning fit's p-value exceeded modeling.poor_fit_p_value_threshold (0.05) or its R² fell below modeling.poor_fit_rsquared_threshold (0.5). The failing threshold(s) are noted alongside each row; selections in ### Winners with poor fit still drive the proposal, while ### Other weak candidates lists losing candidates that the selector dropped in favor of a qualified alternative. See runtime_estimation_autogenerated_report.md for per-fit runtime_ms, pvalue, and rsquared metrics.

Winners with poor fit

Gas param	Client	Test	Target opcode	Coef	runtime_ms	pvalue	rsquared	Failed
`COLD_STORAGE_WRITE`	`ethrex`	`test_sstore_bloated`	`SSTORE`	`target_coef`	0.00914	0.001	0.2141	R²

Other weak candidates

COLD_STORAGE_WRITE — 1 weak combo

Test	Target opcode	Coef	Combo	Failing clients
`test_sstore_bloated`	`SSTORE`	`target_coef`	—	`ethrex` (both)

WARM_ACCESS — 6 weak combos

Test	Target opcode	Coef	Combo	Failing clients
`test_ext_account_query_warm`	`BALANCE`	`target_coef`	`param_opcode=BALANCE`	`besu` (R²)
`test_ext_account_query_warm`	`CALL`	`target_coef`	`param_opcode=CALL`	`erigon` (R²)
`test_ext_account_query_warm`	`EXTCODEHASH`	`target_coef`	`param_opcode=EXTCODEHASH`	`besu` (R²), `erigon` (R²), `reth` (R²)
`test_ext_account_query_warm`	`EXTCODESIZE`	`target_coef`	`param_opcode=EXTCODESIZE`	`besu` (R²), `geth` (both), `reth` (R²)
`test_ext_account_query_warm`	`STATICCALL`	`target_coef`	`param_opcode=STATICCALL`	`erigon` (R²)
`test_sload_same_key_benchmark`	`SLOAD`	`target_coef`	—	`besu` (R²)

	besu	erigon	ethrex	geth	nethermind	reth
M1	7	4	2	2	12	1
M2	31	24	8	11	27	5
M3	34	8	8	14	15	5
M4	31	8	8	12	36	4
M5	6	22	2	3	18	2
M6	8	4	2	1	19	1
M7	30	23	8	14	28	4
M8	5	4	2	4	10	1

	besu	erigon	ethrex	geth	nethermind	reth
M1	7	4	2	2	12	1
M2	31	24	8	11	27	5
M3	34	8	8	14	15	5
M4	31	8	8	12	36	4
M5	6	22	2	3	18	2
M6	8	4	2	1	19	1
M7	30	23	8	14	28	4
M8	5	4	2	4	10	1

	besu	erigon	ethrex	geth	nethermind	reth
M1	7	4	2	2	12	1
M2	31	24	8	11	27	5
M3	34	8	8	14	15	5
M4	31	8	8	12	36	4
M5	6	22	2	3	18	2
M6	8	4	2	1	19	1
M7	30	23	8	14	28	4
M8	5	4	2	4	10	1